AGE EFFECTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: OVERVIEW

AGE EFFECTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM
Age has been regarded as an important factor in the ways in which language learners differ, and a vast amount of research has been conducted regarding age effects on second language acquisition（e.g. Birdsong, 1992; DeKeyser, 2000; Oyama, 1976; Patkowski, 1980）. It is generally believed that children enjoy an advantage over adults in learning languages because of their ‘plasticity’. According to Chomsky（1957）, humans are equipped with a ‘language acquisition device’, which enables them to acquire the language in a way that goes beyond simple habitual formation. The ‘universal grammar’ proposed by Chomsky later on（1966） is thought to be an innate system of language acquisition, the socalled language acquisition device. Although Chomsky has not mentioned the possibility of applying this theoretical device in the brain to the acquisition of second languages, ‘grammaticality judgment tests’, the purpose of which is to measure learners’ universal grammar, have been widely used for second language acquisition research（e.g. Johnson & Newport, 1989. These ‘grammaticality judgment tests’ consist of morphosyntactic items, implying that the ‘universal grammar’ is really about how learners organize the target language’s morphosyntactic system.
On the other hand, Lenneberg（1967）hypothesized that humans’ latent language structure, i.e. the cognitive structure for automatic language acquisition, might stop functioning when the human brain matures, or at the time of lateralization of the human brain, which possibly occurs around puberty. He established the critical period hypothesis, which was originally proposed by Penfield & Roberts（1959, and explained the difficulty of acquiring our first language after puberty, based on neuropsychological factors（Lenneberg, 1967. In the area of second language acquisition research, the critical period hypothesis has been taken into consideration in age-related studies. There is believed to be a period up to a certain age during which learners can acquire a second language easily and achieve native-speaker-like competence. The sensitive period hypothesis, which is used by Patkowski（1980, has been sometimes used as an alternative term to refer to the critical period hypothesis in second language acquisition, and has often been freely substituted in second language research literature. However, the critical period hypothesis has been predominantly used in first language acquisition, whilst the sensitive period hypothesis has been generally restricted to second language acquisition.
RESEARCH QUESTION
Does age effects the learning second language process?
SUPPORTING THEORIES

We have observed that learners who start early in life to expose themselves to their second language are more likely to attain a native or native-like accent than older starters. Oyama （1976）examined 60 male learners who had immigrated to the United States. Their ages ranged from 6 to 20 years old and they had lived there for between 5 and 18 years. Two adult native speakers judged the ‘native-ness’ of the learners’ accents during a reading-aloud task and during free speech. The results showed a significant negative correlation in ‘age of arrival and acquisition’, which meant that the younger their age of arrival was, the more authentic the accent they acquired. For instance, the youngest arrivals were rated the same as native speakers. However, no significant relationship was found between the length of stay and their accent. Other studies that examined the effect s of age on pronunciation（e.g. Tahta, Wood & Loewenthal, 1981）also indicated that an earlier age of arrival or acquisition leads to better pronunciation.
Similar results have been provided from studies in morphosyntax/grammar, but in their studies the cutting-off age for the critical/sensitive period is later or older than the studies on pronunciation. Patkowski（1980）invest igated 67 immigrants to the United States, finding that learners who had entered the United States before the age of 15 were rated as more proficient in grammar than learners who had entered after the age of 15. There was also a significant difference in the distribution rate of scores based on a five-point scale for the two groups. The range of adult group scores was smaller than the range of child group scores. In addition, Patkowski examined the effects of the length of the stay in the United States, the amount of informal exposure to English and the amount of formal instruction. Neither the length of the stay nor the amount of formal instruction provided a significant effect but the amount of informal exposure did have a significant effect, though this was much less significant than the age factor.
In a similar line to Patkowski（1980）, Johnson & Newport （1989）investigated 46 native Koreans and Chinese who had immigrated in the United States between the ages of 3 and 39, using an aural grammaticality judgment test. Half of them arrived there before the age of 15 and the other half arrived after the age of 17. The participants were asked to judge the grammaticality of 276 spoken sentences. The results indicated a negative correlation between age at arrival and judgment scores, which was – 0.77, meaning that the later the learner arrived, the lower the score they got. However, one difference from Patkowski’s study was that the scores of the younger group varied less than those of the adult group. Also, neither the number of years of exposure to English nor the amount of classroom instruction was related to the grammaticality judgment scores.
Johnson（1992）followed up on the study by Johnson & Newport（1989）by using the same participants in the earlier study a year later with written tests, working on the belief that written test materials eliminated extragrammatical properties that were present in the auditory materials. The results showed a negative correlation（r = – 0.54）between age of arrival and performance, and suggested that the grammatical knowledge of young learners is native or near-native whereas that attained by older learners is ill-formed or incomplete. Thus, the critical period effects could be found in a test of grammar with a minimum number of extragrammatical properties. This shows the robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition
 
DISCUSSION
Whether critical/sensitive period hypothesis exists, age clearly should be regarded as an important factor that influences the possibility of attaining native-like proficiency in a second language, though there are some differences in the learning difficulties involved because of the similarities and differences between the first languages and second languages and because of given contexts such as whether or not the learners reside in the countries where their second languages are spoken（Birdsong, 2007）. However, the empirical studies about age as an important factor in second language acquisition, described in the previous section, have provided different positions towards the critical/sensitive period hypothesis. The first five studies（Oyama, 1976; Tahta, et al., 1981; Patkowski, 1980; Johnson & Newport, 1989; Johnson, 1992） support the hypothesis, that is, second language learners will not be able to attain a level of native-like proficiency if the age of arrival or acquisition is after the critical/sensitive period. The first two studies used data about phonology/pronunciation and the other three studies were based on the results of grammaticality judgment tests measuring the level of morphosyntax/grammar. Thus, the adult participants in these studies may have been in the fossilized phase of development in the areas of phonology and grammar. Regarding the critical ages for acquisition, according to several researchers（e.g. Ellis, 1994; Long, 1990）acquiring native-like pronunciation is possible until the age of 6 – the final age for arrival and acquisition. On the other hand, native-like grammatical/morphosyntactical competence should be possible up to the age of 15（e.g. Patkowski, 1980）. As Selinger（1978） proposes, there may be multiple critical/sensitive periods for different aspects of language. The period during which a native accent is easily acquirable appears to end sooner than the period governing the acquisition of a language’s grammar. In other words, the biological sensory acuity for attaining native-like pronunciation terminates much earlier than the cognitive plasticity that manages grammaticality judgment. Pinker（1994） makes the following note. Acquisition of a normal language（phonology）is guaranteed for children up to the age of six, is steadily compromised from then until shortly after puberty, and is rare thereafter. Maturational changes in the brain, such as the decline in metabolic rate and the number of neurons during early school-age years, and the bottoming out of the number of synapses and metabolic rate around puberty, are plausible causes.（p. 293）
On the other hand, the most recent neurocognitive evidence has indicated the mechanism that manages language in the brain’s system. Ullman (2007) argues as follows. In first language, lexical knowledge depends on the declarative memory brain system, which underlies semantic and episodic knowledge, and is rooted in temporal-lobe structures. Grammar in first language relies rather on the procedural memory system, which subserves motor and cognitive skills, and is rooted in frontal/basalganglia circuits. In contrast, evidence suggests that in later-learned second language, learners initially depend largely on declarative memory, not only for lexical knowledge, but also for the use of complex forms. However, with increasing experience second language learners show procedural learning of grammatical rules, becoming first language-like. Importantly, because the behavioral, computational, anatomical and physiological bases of the two memory systems are reasonably well-understood, including the nature of forgetting of knowledge and skills in these systems, we can make relatively specific predictions about language, including with respect to language attrition.（p. 9）
Thus, second language learners are unable to acquire the target language as long as they use the declarative brain memory system for its grammatical rules. As Ullman（2007）points out, through experience, second language learners come to make use of the procedural memory system. Neurocognitive researchers have presented these findings as reliable through the use of advanced technology, which makes them persuasive. Given that first language grammar is dealt with in this procedural memory system, the so-called universal grammar (morphosyntax in Practice) or language acquisition device presumably may refer to the process of using the procedural memory system for grammar or language rules. If so, with the possible exception of getting a native-like accent, even adult learners could attain native-like proficiency in their target language if they practice it enough to make the language behavior their automatic routine – like riding a bicycle, which also uses the procedural memory system – and to make the procedural memory system active in utilizing the second language’s mophosyntax/grammar. The maxim that practice makes perfect may hold true for acquiring a second language. In the case of child learners, or learners before the age of 15, the procedural memory system rather than the declarative memory system is more likely to be used for second language grammar. Possibly a lack of plasticity in the brain’s system may lead to difficulty in acquiring second languages when we are older. Regarding the subtle distinction between a ‘critical’ and a ‘sensitive’ period, the question is whether completely successful acquisition is deemed to be only possible within a given span of a learner’s life（critical）, or whether acquisition is just easier within this period (sensitive). Therefore, the sensitive period hypothesis seems to be more, appropriate for second language acquisition, though the ‘critical period hypothesis’ has been predominantly used.
The second category of studies with mixed results consists of Burstall（1975）, Harley（1986）and Riney（1990）. Burstall （1975）showed that the late starters excelled in writing, reading, and speaking while the early starters were better only in listening. As Ellis（1994）posits earlier in this article, younger learners are better in sensory acuity, which led to the better listening skills described by Burstall learners were better in all other areas – writing, reading and speaking – may refute the critical/sensitive period hypothesis. It holds true, indeed, that the older learners, secondary school students in this study, outperformed the younger learners because of their advanced cognition and more mature social positioning. However, in the previous literature（e.g. Ellis, 1994）, the younger group was said to overtake the older group.
In Burstall’s study（1975）, at the age of 16, the older group still outperformed the younger one. As one explanation, it was assumed that 16 years old was not yet the end of the best period for acquisition. The other explanation was that the older group of learners could have practised until they reached the stage of using the procedural memory system, which enabled them to use their second language automatically like their first language（c.f. Ullman, 2007）. Also, various individual differences, not limited to age factors, played a stronger role in their performances in second language learning. His study shows that age is less important and that the more sophisticated cognitive or possibly academic skills they had in their first language played a more meaningful role in their second language acquisition, except in the area of listening, which may be biological and less influenced by external factors. Harley’s study（1986）is a robust example showing that the younger learners were able to perform better in the long run, which endorses the validity of the critical/ sensitive period hypothesis. Riney’s investigation（1990） showed condi t ional resul ts control led by phonological environments. Epenthesis, the insertion of schwa sounds, is a well-known phenomenon among Japanese learners of English as well as an example of negative transfer. Possible fossilization caused by having less flexible physiological natures may have rendered the adult learners unable to fix the epenthesis, even after they had exposed themselves to the correct language environment.
The last category of studies consisted of six studies refuting or at least not complying with the critical/sensitive period hypothesis, though the last study by Harley & Hart（1997） suggested different cognitive processes among early and late learners. The first three example studies（Bailey, et al., 1974; Fathman, 1975; Harley, 1986）dealt with morphology, a part of so-called grammar; however, they did not present the features of the critical/sensitive period hypothesis, which may question the validity of the hypothesis. The fourth study, by Cummins & Nakajima（1987）, gave clear results counter to the critical/ sensitive period hypothesis because the older learners provided better results in writing and reading tests. The interdependent principle（Cummins, 1981）, which emphasizes the importance of academic skills in first languages, may well support the starting age for learning English in Japan. The reality, however, is that both reading and writing are not directly related to oral communication. In other words, linguistic behaviors such as writing and reading can be classified only as a school subject, not as a part of language acquisition. Probably that is why they failed to comply with the critical/sensitive period hypothesis. On the other hand, the fifth study by Ioup, et al.（1994） investigated an exceptional older learner who succeeded in acquiring a second language and its findings should encourage adult language learners to try to gain native-like proficiency. Various kinds of interpretations have been provided to account for the existence of a critical/sensitive period. For instance, Muhlhauser（1986）proposes that ‘adults and children appear to behave very much in the same manner’, which indicates that ‘activation of certain linguistic developments is dependent on the presence of specific environmental factors, rather than on different cognitive abilities of children and adults’ after an extensive study of the developmental stages of pidgin languages and their similarities to language acquisition（1986, p. 265-266）. Long（1990）, on the other hand, concludes that a neurological explanation is best and proposes a ‘mental muscle model’, where the language-specific faculty remains intact throughout our lives, but access to it is impeded to varying degrees and impeded progressively with age, unless the faculty is used and so kept plastic. Such a view is compatible with studies of exceptional language learners, which demonstrate that some adult learners are capable of achieving native-speaker levels of competence, as seen in the study by Ioup, et al.（1994）. As Birdsong（1992） points out, the critical/sensitive period hypothesis may have to be reexamined if many such learners are found.
CONCLUSION
The criteria for the most appropriate age to acquire a language seem to be based on phonology（pronunciation）and morphosyntax（grammar）. Previous age-related studies have claimed that the process of acquiring a second language grammar（morphosyntax）is not substantially affected by age, but that of acquiring pronunciation（phonology）may be. The critical period hypothesis that originated from first language acquisition (Lenneberg, 1967; Penfield & Roberts, 1959) is based on neuropsychological factors, and the most important of these is brain maturation. It is widely known that the cognitive structures that allow for automatic language acquisition in a child deteriorate as the human brain matures. In second language acquisition, if a critical/sensitive period hypothesis does exist, adult learners or learners starting to learn after a certain age（puberty for instance）may experience fossilization in phonology and/or morphosyntax regardless of their efforts, due to neurological/physiological factors. All those who possess a first language are certainly capable of acquiring some degree of a second language; however, second language acquisition in a mature human is not as successful as first language acquisition in many cases. Although some researchers (e.g. Bley-Vroman, 1988) have argued that older learners no longer have access to their innate language acquisition device, consisting of the principles of universal grammar（Chomsky, 1981）and language-specific learning procedures, it has been found to be possible for adult learners to activate such a device by using the procedural memory system (Ullman, 2007) instead of using the declarative memory system, by following the innate grammatical structure while using the language, and by thorough practice until the structure is internalized in the learners’ minds and becomes automatic in their behavior. Ullman（2001）suggests that ‘an increasing amount of experience（i.e. practice）with a second language should lead to better learning of grammatical rules in procedural memory, which in turn should result in higher proficiency in the language’（p.118）. Even in adult language learning, which has usually been achieved through first language knowledge, so-called universal grammar may be accessible to adult second language learners, but their second languages are eventually acquired only if they are encouraged to use the procedural memory system instead of the declarative memory system.
 
REFERENCES
Bailey, N., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. (1974). Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language learning? Language Learning, 21, 235-243.
Bialystok, F. & Hakuta, K.(1999). In other words: The science and psychology of second-language acquisition. NewYork: Basic Books.
Birdsong, D. (1992). Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. Language Learning, 68, 706-755.
Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A select ive overview. Language Learning, 56, 9-49
http://www.pdf-finder.com/pdf/language-acquisition-in-young-learners-a-research.html
http://www.timothyjpmason.com/WebPages/LangTeach/Licence/CM/OldLectures/L4_Experiments.htm

TGG

http://www.google.com

RELATIVE PRONOUN

DEPENDENT WORDS
A dependent clause usually begins with a dependent word. One kind of dependent word is a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions are used to begin dependent clauses known as adverbial clauses which act like adverbs. In the following examples, the adverbial clauses are bold and the subordinating conjunctions are italicized:
Wherever she goes, she leaves a piece of luggage behind. (The adverbial clause wherever she goes modifies the verb leaves.)
Bob enjoyed the movie more than I did. (The adverbial clause than I did modifies the adverb more.)
Another type of dependent word is the relative pronoun. Relative pronouns begin dependent clauses known as adjective clauses, which act like adjectives, or noun clauses, which act like nouns. In the following examples, the dependent clauses are bold and the relative pronouns are italicized:
The only one of the seven dwarfs who does not have a beard is Dopey. (The adjective clause who does not have a beard describes the noun one.)
No one understands why experience is something you don’t get until just after you need it. (The noun clause why experience is something you don’t get until just after you need it functions as a direct object.)

NOUN CLAUSE
A noun clause can be used the same way as a noun.[1] It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some of the words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. To check whether a clause is a noun clause, try substituting the appropriate pronoun (he, she, it, or they).
Examples:
• I know who said that. (I know it.)
• Whoever said it is wrong. (He is wrong.)
Sometimes a noun clause is used without the introductory word.
Example:
• I know that he is here.
• I know he is here. (without “that”)
In some cases, use of the introductory word, though grammatically correct, may sound cumbersome in English.
Example:
• I think that it is pretty. (correct, though excessive)
• I think it is pretty. (standard usage)

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
An adjective clause—also called an adjectival or relative clause—will meet three requirements. First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering questions such as: What kind? How many? or Which one?
The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns:
• Relative Pronoun [or Relative Adverb] + Subject + Verb = Dependent Clause
• Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Subject] + Verb = Dependent Clause
Relative pronoun consists of 2 types:
1. Defining Relative: explaining limited only to subjects in written reply without commas.
e.g. The boy who broke the school-window is Tom.
2. Non-Defining Relative: explain not limited to the subject, but there are some more details about the subject itself and in writing dengang commas.
e.g. Tom, who is a naughty boy, broke the school-window.

Relative Pronun are consist of :
1. WHO / WHAT is used for people as a subject.
e.g. The man is my father. The man helped you yesterday.
* The man who helped you yesterday is my father.
Note: That can be used to replace who, whom, which.

2. WHO / THAT used to people as an Object.
e.g. The man is my father. You helped the man yesterday.
* The man whom you helped yesterday is my father.
Note: whom the conversation is often omitted.

3. WHICH / THAT for object used as Object and Subject.
e.g. We are waiting for the bus. The bus goes to Bogor.
* We are waitng for the bus that goes to Bogor.
Note: which / that as the main clause.

4. WHOSE/ THAT used for people who have
e.g The Lady is my neighbor. Her children is in hospital now
* The lady Whose child is in hospital now is my neighbor.
The man is very proud. His son is pilot
*The man whose son is a pilot is very proud.

FRAGMENTS
In formal English grammar, sentence fragments are typically avoided. Writers who want to avoid sentence fragments must connect each adjective clause to a main clause. In the examples below, notice that the adjective clause follows the word that it describes.
Diane felt manipulated by her beagle, Santana, whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie.
Chewing with her mouth open is one reason why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie.
Growling ferociously, Oreo and Skeeter, my two dogs, competed for the hard-boiled egg that bounced onto the kitchen tile.
Laughter erupted from Annamarie, who hiccuped for seven hours afterward.

PUNCTUATION
Punctuating adjective clauses can be problematic. For each sentence, the writer will have to decide if the adjective clause is essential or nonessential and use commas accordingly. Essential clauses do not require commas. An adjective clause is essential when the information it contains is relevant to the overall message. For example:
The vegetables that people often leave uneaten are usually the most nutritious.
“Vegetables” is nonspecific. To know which ones we are talking about, we must have the information in the adjective clause (in italics). Thus, the adjective clause is essential and requires no commas.
However, if we eliminate vegetables and choose a more specific noun instead, the adjective clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read the correct form:
Broccoli, which people often leave uneaten, is very nutritious.
Adverbial clause
“He saw Mary when he was in New York” and “They studied hard because they had a test” both contain adverbial clauses (in italics). Adverbial clauses express when, why, opposition and conditions, and they are dependent clauses. This means that an adverbial clause can not stand by itself. In other words, “When he went to New York” is not a complete sentence. It needs to be completed by an independent clause. Example:
He went to the Guggenheim museum when he was in New York.
Dependent clauses and sentence structure
A sentence with an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is referred to as a complex sentence. One with two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses is referred to as a compound-complex sentence.
My sister cried because she scraped her knee. (complex sentence)
Subjects: My sister, she
Predicates: cried, scraped her knee
Subordinating conjunction: because
When they told me I won the contest, I cried, but I didn’t faint. **(compound-complex sentence)
Subjects: they, I, I, I
Predicates: told me, won the contest, cried, didn’t faint
Subordinating conjunctions: When, that (understood)
Coordinating conjunction: but
The above sentence actually contains two dependent clauses. “When they told me” is one; the other is “(that) I won the contest.” The “that” is understood to precede the “I won” and functions as a subordinating conjunction.
 
CONDITIONAL SENTENCE
Conditional sentence consists of 2 parts of the main clause sentences and sentences with if Clause (in case). In English conditional sentences there are 3 types:
I. Future Possible
This is used to denote an action that will be / happen in the future if a condition fulfilled. The possibility of doing that, depending on the condition that met or not. Attitudes of the speaker in this case showed the neutral and still hope that these actions can occur. For this type of sentence structure as follows:
• Main clause _ simple future tense
• If clause_ simple present tense
e.g : If you study hard, you will pass the examination.
If the weather is fine tomorrow, we will go for a picnic.
If I go to England, I will visit Buckingham Palace.
I will Buy a car if I have much money.
He will tell you if he knows the answer.

Unless – If Not
Unless used to replace if not, for negative statements. Note in the sentence below:
e.g. * If you don’t take an umbrella. You will get wet.
– Unless you take an umbrella. You will get wet.
* If you don’t study hard. You won’t pass the examination.
– Unless you study hard. You won’t pass the examination.
* If it doesn’t rain tomorrow. I will go for a swim.
– Unless it rains tomorrow. I will go for a swim.
* No one will come to the door if doesn’t ring the bell.
– No one will come to the door unless he rings the bell.
* We will be late if we don’t leave now.
– We will be late unless we leave now.

II. Present Unreal
This section is used to declare a state of different / opposite of the reality in the present. appropriate sentence structure as follows:
• Main clause _ past future tense
• If clause_ future tense simple

e.g: -) If you studied hard, you would pass the examination.
(You don’t study hard).
-) If I had a car. I would take a trip to bali. (I don’t have a car).
-) If my father knew how to drive. He would buy a car.
(My father doesn’t know to drive).
-) I would eat japanese food if I lived in japan. (I don’t live in japan).
-) He would buy a new house if he had much money.
(He doesn’t have much money).

If the phrase is expressed by to be, then we use for all subjects were. Like this :
e.g: -) If I were the moon, you would be the star.
-) If I were a bird, I would fly all over the world.
-) If he were not busy this time, he would help you.
-) If I were him, I wouldn’t do that.
-) If I were rich, I would make a trip around the world.

III. Past Unreal
Past unreal is used to express a different situation, and contrary to reality in the past. composition of the sentence as follows:
– Main clause _ Past future perfect tense
– If clause _ Past perfect tense.
e.g: -) If he had gone to the concert last night, he would have seen Mary.
(He didn’t go to the concert).
-) If I had seen you yesterday, I would have told you about it.
(I didn’t see you yesterday).
-) If weather had been fine yesterday, we would have gone for swim.
(the weather was bad yesterday).
-) If you had told her the truth, she wouldn’t have been angry.
(You didn’t tell her the truth)
-) If I had received your message, I would have come at once.
(I didn’t receive your message).

AMERICAN DEMOCRACY

AMERICAN DEMOCRACY

Columns, GATRA, August 5, 1995
Date published: 5th August 1995

America ruled by an elite oligarchy. This oligarchy of power source: money. This is the basic opinion Juwono Sudarsono about American politics as he wrote in GATRA lately.
At Gettysburg in 1863 Abraham Lincoln made a speech about America. America, said Lincoln, is a country “which is dedicated to the idea that human beings are created equal”. And therefore the U.S. government is set to follow the motto: “from the people, by the people, for the people”.
If Juwono right, we can only Lincoln pursing these ideals. Because until now American politics was governed only by a handful of deep pockets elite in Washington. Juwono opinion is classified as very hard. In order for this opinion cannot be as hard as mere rhetoric, Juwono must support it with solid arguments and convincing evidence. Unfortunately, these two items we did not find.
Ralph Nader and Hedrick Smith – who was quoted Juwono to support his argument – not taken seriously in the world of thought in America. They are more regarded as popularizes of ideas. Smith’s opinion, for example, that the basis of political power in America is “money, money, and money”, based on the assumption that the most vulgar Marxism. With this sort of argument is difficult for us to understand the complexity of the political dynamics.
Juwono analysis, in many ways, based on the argument C. Wright Mills, a thinker who is more serious than Nader and Smith. Although raised in the late 1950s, the argument is that Mills is still quite popular in various circles. One reason: it allows us to greatly simplifies the problem and then pointed.
Where Juwono Mills and weaknesses? In any country – democratic or not, in Washington or in Jakarta – there’s always the elite levels. This is very trivial, we can understand without having to think hard. Relevant as the real political issue is the nature’s power elites. This is what distinguishes between a democratic system and the authoritarian.
Mills apparently did not realize this simple question. “The concept of power elite,” said Mills explained in his famous book, The Power Elite, “not connected at all decision-making manner. This concept is related to who was involved in that process.” With this concept, Mills consciously ignored the nature of political power. Instead, he emphasized is the composition of the political actors.
Mills ignorance of the nature of political power and instead focused attention on Mills that anyone in power that obscures views on political issues and democracy in America. Such indifference is what is conceptually impossible to distinguish between Jefferson Mills and Lenin, between Roosevelt and Hitler. And this is what traps the characters of elite theories, such as Mosca and Michels.
If the nature of power used as the main criterion is an important question related to democracy is: Is the control of the political elite running? Does the election of fair and open them? How do they make decisions? Is the press were banned? And in the presence of these criteria for our portrait of American politics not as simple as Juwono accusations.
In the process of decision making, for example, the most important in the American system is a mechanism that allows an open debate among the elite in Congress, Senate, and the White House. Of course, a combination of the power of money, ideas, personal charisma, and organization affect the outcome of this debate. But all this can not eliminate the basic fact that, among the elite in Washington, open debate ongoing. And the people, thanks to a free press, is widely watched.
If we follow, in the formulation of policy debate in Congress, Senate, and the White House often lasted a rambling and often emotional. This is to some people boring and redundant. But even in a prolonged debate behind it lies the essence of the nature of American power. These debates really is a form of bargaining continued between the rulers and the people.
Gingrich and Clinton – as the political elites in any country – was “ordered” and formulate policies. And the people – as people everywhere – are on the edge of the stage. But at the Jefferson and Lincoln country is the mechanism that connects the people and the elite is the bargaining, persuasion, argument, and ultimately trust. In this land of authoritarian rulers of the people and relationships more sustained anxiety and cynicism.
All this does not mean that American democracy is perfect democracy. Lincoln at Gettysburg speech was how one is an ideal which we should not confuse with reality.
Perhaps there are aspects and arguments enough Juwono describe some weaknesses of democracy in America. But if this argument made repeatedly and conclude too much, he not only would obscure the big picture of American democracy, but also, as Daniel Bell of thoughts Mills, will give the impression that any political power – democratic or not – basically a dark conspiracy. And therefore extend only cynicism toward achieving the ideals of a freer society.

*) Students Doctoral Program at Ohio State University. Now the Director of Freedom Institute.
 
Comentar :
In this article more focused on Juwono view of democracy in America and his opinion that compared with the previous opinion of the democratic character. According to the U.S. is controlled by an elite oligarchy. This oligarchy of power source: money. Relevant as the real political issue is the nature’s power elites. Because until now American politics was governed only by a handful of deep pockets elite in Washington. Juwono analysis, in many ways, based on the argument C. Wright Mills, a thinker who is more serious than Nader and Smith. Mills apparently did not realize this simple question. “The concept of power elite,”. Juwono here also review a little about the opinion of Gingrich and Clinton – as the political elites in any country – was “ordered” and formulate policies. And the people – as people everywhere – are on the edge of the stage. But in this country and Jefferson Lincoln is the mechanism that connects the people and the elites are bargaining, persuasion, argument, and ultimately trust. In this land of authoritarian rulers of the people and relationships more sustained anxiety and cynicism. This article describes the shortcomings more American democracy, but if the article This continues on to discuss it will bear the impression that any political power – democratic or not – basically a dark conspiracy. And therefore extend only cynicism toward achieving the ideals of a freer society.

Corruption and Human Rights Violations

Corruption and Human Rights Violations

So far, the issue of corruption seen in isolation from human rights (human rights). Even in conversations about the agenda of fighting corruption, upholding human rights perspective received less attention. When in fact, human rights could be one means of analysis of the practice because corruption always cause casualties, the public at large. This is a fundamental distinction between the embezzler and a thief. When school is stolen, the lost may only money, a set of teaching equipment, etc.. But when corruption occurs in schools, one would expect the whole world

Elitist strategy
Corruption is understood as the abuse of power and authority for personal gain. From a legal standpoint, the Anti-Corruption Act defining the four elements of corruption, abuse of authority that is element, element enrich themselves or corporation, the financial harm element of the state and elements of lawlessness.
Another sense of well-known corruption formulated by Robert Klitgaard. Klitgaard formulate that corruption occurs because the power and authority are not balanced with accountability. C = M + D – A, Corruption = monopoly + discretion – accountability.

When we stopped in this sense is as if corruption is not relevant to human rights. In the realm of strategy, eradication of corruption is not too related to human rights enforcement. If you follow the formula Klitgaard, corruption can be eradicated by reducing the monopoly and authority and at the same time encourage greater public accountability. From a legal standpoint, corruption can be eradicated by imposing severe penalties against the perpetrators so that a deterrent effect for others. Corrupt individuals can be suppressed with heavy sanctions.
Strategies to eradicate corruption in Indonesia dominant today also followed a similar pattern, done through institutional reform. Anti-Corruption Act is deemed not relevant to the Act is replaced by a more comprehensive and advanced. Prosecutorial and police who failed to eradicate corruption assessed reduced role with the formation of the Corruption Eradication Commission. The Commission is also equipped with extraordinary powers to break through the barriers in law enforcement as experienced by prosecutors and police. The ultimate goal is the existence of heavy sanctions for the corrupt.

But the strategy is not working effectively. Mainly because it tends to elitist and does not include the community. Eradication of corruption, within the framework of this strategy, is the task of legal experts, researchers and certain groups who have particular knowledge and skills, including NGOs in it. That came later rather than participation, but the mobilization of public support for policies that have been formulated. Therefore, despite the various regulations and the Act are made, agencies and commissions established, eradication of corruption as not to show results.
One strategy that can be done to encourage community participation is to look at corruption as a violation of human rights. Likewise, the anti-corruption strategy, should be placed as part of efforts to uphold human rights.
Human rights and corruption
To reconcile the idea of human rights and corruption can be seen in human rights documents, namely the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
From the documents above, corruption is really a human rights violation. Especially in some of the following rights.

Right to affiliate
Included in this category is the right to self-determination (Pasal1 ICCPR, ICESCR Article 1), the right to organize (ICCPR Article 22, ICESCR Article 8), the right to freedom of cultural practices and beliefs (Article 27 ICCPR, ICESCR Article 15) and the right to freedom religion (ICCPR Article 18). Violation of these rights occurs when the corruption occurred in the government adopted a policy that causes damage to the environment, benefit large corporations and marginalize indigenous peoples who have inhabited the region from generation to generation.

Right to life, health and body integrity
Included in this category is a freedom from torture (ICCPR Article 7), the right to life (ICCPR Article 6), the right to health (ICESCR Article 12) and the right to an adequate standard of living (ICESCR Article 11). One example of this violation is the import of hazardous wastes from Singapore. How is it possible hazardous waste that threatens not only the environment but also get into the health of Indonesia? The reason is corruption that involves many parties.
Another example can be mentioned is torture committed by military forces using the Freeport facility in Papua. Alleged involvement with the Free Papua Organization, military officials that get funding “safety” of PT Freeport to the torture of public figures who opposed the presence of Freeport.

Right to participate in politics
Included in this category is the right of freedom of expression (ICCPR Article 19), the right to vote in general elections (ICCPR, Article 15). Freedom of expression including the right to obtain information in various forms. Violations of the rights of freedom of expression can be seen in the defamation lawsuit perpetrated against the media and anti-corruption activist.
Likewise, money politics practices in the general election can be categorized as a violation of the right to vote. With the money politics, the choice given by the voters rather than on personal desires but because the motivation of money so that the elections have no integrity anymore.

Rights to law enforcement and non-discrimination
These rights include the right to a fair trial and the individual awards equal before the law (ICCPR, Article 9-15). Categories violation of these rights can we see the corruption in the judiciary. Because of corruption, the judge did not decide on the basis of justice but rather on the amount of money given. As a result, many large corruptors released or received light law, while the chicken thief in the village to get severe punishment.

Right to social and economic development
Included in this category is a decent working conditions (ICESCR, Article 6-9), the right to education (ICESCR, Article 13-14). Both of these rights may be violated through the budget allocation that is not fair. As we can see in the state budget, most of its allocation for payment of domestic debt and foreign. Education budget only got less than 10%. Moreover, the health budget is far below it. Clearly in this category, the state has violated human rights.

Closing
By using human rights as a perspective in viewing and analyzing corruption, we can show the victim and the obligations to be fulfilled by the state. Through the analysis of human rights, the discourse of corruption can be cleaned from the study in the form of numbers and technical calculation and analysis of manipulative law. Through human rights, we see rows of victims of corruption that will continue to grow.
In turn, using human rights instruments will be able to encourage community participation. Because the human rights perspective can be shown by clear how people become victims.
By using the analysis of human rights, corruption eradication strategy can also be enriched. Strategies to eradicate corruption can be directed to hold accountable the state of a number of corrupt practices in violation of human rights.

TAKSONOMI BLOOM

TAKSONOMI BLOOM
Kajian Teori
Taksonomi berasal dari bahasa Yunani tassein berarti untuk mengklasifikasi dan nomos yang berarti aturan. Taksonomi berarti klasifikasi berhirarki dari sesuatu atau prinsip yang mendasari klasifikasi. Semua hal yang bergerak, benda diam, tempat, dan kejadian- sampai pada kemampuan berpikir dapat diklasifikasikan menurut beberapa skema taksonomi.

Konsep Taksonomi Bloom dikembangkan pada tahun 1956 oleh Benjamin Bloom, seorang psikolog bidang pendidikan. Konsep ini mengklasifikasikan tujuan pendidikan dalam tiga ranah, yaitu kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik.

Ranah kognitif meliputi fungsi memproses informasi, pengetahuan dan keahlian mentalitas. Ranah afektif meliputi fungsi yang berkaitan dengan sikap dan perasaan. Sedangkan ranah psikomotorik berkaitan dengan fungsi manipulatif dan kemampuan fisik.

Taksonomi Bloom merujuk pada taksonomi yang dibuat untuk tujuan pendidikan. Taksonomi ini pertama kali disusun oleh Benjamin S. Bloom pada tahun 1956. Dalam hal ini, tujuan pendidikan dibagi menjadi beberapa domain (ranah, kawasan) dan setiap domain tersebut dibagi kembali ke dalam pembagian yang lebih rinci berdasarkan hirarkinya.

Tujuan pendidikan dibagi ke dalam tiga domain, yaitu:
1. Cognitive Domain (Ranah Kognitif), yang berisi perilaku-perilaku yang menekankan aspek intelektual, seperti pengetahuan, pengertian, dan keterampilan berpikir.
2. Affective Domain (Ranah Afektif) berisi perilaku-perilaku yang menekankan aspek perasaan dan emosi, seperti minat, sikap, apresiasi, dan cara penyesuaian diri.
3. Psychomotor Domain (Ranah Psikomotor) berisi perilaku-perilaku yang menekankan aspek keterampilan motorik seperti tulisan tangan, mengetik, berenang, dan mengoperasikan mesin.

Beberapa istilah lain yang juga menggambarkan hal yang sama dengan ketiga domain tersebut di antaranya seperti yang diungkapkan oleh Ki Hajar Dewantoro, yaitu: cipta, rasa, dan karsa. Selain itu, juga dikenal istilah: penalaran, penghayatan, dan pengamalan.

Dari setiap ranah tersebut dibagi kembali menjadi beberapa kategori dan subkategori yang berurutan secara hirarkis (bertingkat), mulai dari tingkah laku yang sederhana sampai tingkah laku yang paling kompleks. Tingkah laku dalam setiap tingkat diasumsikan menyertakan juga tingkah laku dari tingkat yang lebih rendah, seperti misalnya dalam ranah kognitif, untuk mencapai “pemahaman” yang berada di tingkatan kedua juga diperlukan “pengetahuan” yang ada pada tingkatan pertama.

Domain Kognitif
Bloom membagi domain kognisi ke dalam 6 tingkatan. Domain ini terdiri dari dua bagian: Bagian pertama berupa adalah Pengetahuan (kategori 1) dan bagian kedua berupa Kemampuan dan Keterampilan Intelektual (kategori 2-6)
Pengetahuan (Knowledge)
Berisikan kemampuan untuk mengenali dan mengingat peristilahan, definisi, fakta-fakta, gagasan, pola, urutan, metodologi, prinsip dasar, dsb. Sebagai contoh, ketika diminta menjelaskan manajemen kualitas, orang yg berada di level ini bisa menguraikan dengan baik definisi dari kualitas, karakteristik produk yang berkualitas, standar kualitas minimum untuk produk, dsb.

Pemahaman (Comprehension)
Dikenali dari kemampuan untuk membaca dan memahami gambaran, laporan, tabel, diagram, arahan, peraturan, dsb. Sebagai contoh, orang di level ini bisa memahami apa yg diuraikan dalam fish bone diagram, pareto chart, dsb.

Aplikasi (Application)
Di tingkat ini, seseorang memiliki kemampuan untuk menerapkan gagasan, prosedur, metode, rumus, teori, dsb di dalam kondisi kerja. Sebagai contoh, ketika diberi informasi tentang penyebab meningkatnya reject di produksi, seseorang yg berada di tingkat aplikasi akan mampu merangkum dan menggambarkan penyebab turunnya kualitas dalam bentuk fish bone diagram atau pareto chart.

Analisis (Analysis)
Di tingkat analisis, seseorang akan mampu menganalisa informasi yang masuk dan membagi-bagi atau menstrukturkan informasi ke dalam bagian yang lebih kecil untuk mengenali pola atau hubungannya, dan mampu mengenali serta membedakan faktor penyebab dan akibat dari sebuah skenario yg rumit. Sebagai contoh, di level ini seseorang akan mampu memilah-milah penyebab meningkatnya reject, membanding-bandingkan tingkat keparahan dari setiap penyebab, dan menggolongkan setiap penyebab ke dalam tingkat keparahan yg ditimbulkan.

Sintesis (Synthesis)
Satu tingkat di atas analisa, seseorang di tingkat sintesa akan mampu menjelaskan struktur atau pola dari sebuah skenario yang sebelumnya tidak terlihat, dan mampu mengenali data atau informasi yang harus didapat untuk menghasilkan solusi yg dibutuhkan. Sebagai contoh, di tingkat ini seorang manajer kualitas mampu memberikan solusi untuk menurunkan tingkat reject di produksi berdasarkan pengamatannya terhadap semua penyebab turunnya kualitas produk.

Evaluasi (Evaluation)
Dikenali dari kemampuan untuk memberikan penilaian terhadap solusi, gagasan, metodologi, dsb dengan menggunakan kriteria yang cocok atau standar yg ada untuk memastikan nilai efektivitas atau manfaatnya. Sebagai contoh, di tingkat ini seorang manajer kualitas harus mampu menilai alternatif solusi yg sesuai untuk dijalankan berdasarkan efektivitas, urgensi, nilai manfaat, nilai ekonomis, dsb

Domain Afektif
Pembagian domain ini disusun Bloom bersama dengan David Krathwol.
Penerimaan (Receiving/Attending)
Kesediaan untuk menyadari adanya suatu fenomena di lingkungannya. Dalam pengajaran bentuknya berupa mendapatkan perhatian, mempertahankannya, dan mengarahkannya.

Tanggapan (Responding)
Memberikan reaksi terhadap fenomena yang ada di lingkungannya. Meliputi persetujuan, kesediaan, dan kepuasan dalam memberikan tanggapan.

Penghargaan (Valuing)
Berkaitan dengan harga atau nilai yang diterapkan pada suatu objek, fenomena, atau tingkah laku. Penilaian berdasar pada internalisasi dari serangkaian nilai tertentu yang diekspresikan ke dalam tingkah laku.

Pengorganisasian (Organization)
Memadukan nilai-nilai yang berbeda, menyelesaikan konflik di antaranya, dan membentuk suatu sistem nilai yang konsisten.
Karakterisasi Berdasarkan Nilai-nilai (Characterization by a Value or Value Complex)
Memiliki sistem nilai yang mengendalikan tingkah-lakunya sehingga menjadi karakteristik gaya-hidupnya.

Domain Psikomotor
Rincian dalam domain ini tidak dibuat oleh Bloom, tapi oleh ahli lain berdasarkan domain yang dibuat Bloom.
Persepsi (Perception)
Penggunaan alat indera untuk menjadi pegangan dalam membantu gerakan.

Kesiapan (Set)
Kesiapan fisik, mental, dan emosional untuk melakukan gerakan.

Guided Response (Respon Terpimpin)
Tahap awal dalam mempelajari keterampilan yang kompleks, termasuk di dalamnya imitasi dan gerakan coba-coba.

Mekanisme (Mechanism)
Membiasakan gerakan-gerakan yang telah dipelajari sehingga tampil dengan meyakinkan dan cakap.

Respon Tampak yang Kompleks (Complex Overt Response)
Gerakan motoris yang terampil yang di dalamnya terdiri dari pola-pola gerakan yang kompleks.

Penyesuaian (Adaptation)
Keterampilan yang sudah berkembang sehingga dapat disesuaikan dalam berbagai situasi.

Penciptaan (Origination)
Membuat pola gerakan baru yang disesuaikan dengan situasi atau permasalahan tertentu.

HOW TO BE A SUCCESSFUL HOTELIER

DISCUSSION
THE DEFINITION
Hotelier is the owner, chairman or chief executive of a hotel or hotel group.
Hotel managers are responsible for operations, including reservations, food services, housekeeping and conventions. In a small hotel, one manager usually makes all the important daily decisions, whereas in a large establishment, a general manager hires a number of managers to be in charge of individual departments.
There are 6 step how to become a good hotel manager :
Step 1
Ask yourself if you have excellent interpersonal, communication and organizational skills. They are necessary for a successful hotel management career.
Step 2
Obtain a college degree in hotel management or restaurant management. Remember that a food services department contributes greatly to the profits of a hotel; a successful restaurant manager can see his or her career advance quickly.
Step 3
Take advantage of work-study programs offered by many colleges so that you will gain solid experience working in hotels.
Step 4
Expect to go through a hotel’s training program once you are hired after college. During the first couple of years you will be handling only relatively mundane duties, instead of providing your input on issues such as staffing, hotel decor or conventions.
Step 5
Understand that you might be offered a position as a front office manager, a food and beverage manager, a convention services manager, or any of a number of administrative positions after your training period. If you are successful at different managerial positions, your career will benefit in the long run.
Step 6
Be aware that a promotion might require you to relocate for a few years if you work for a hotel chain that has properties throughout the country.

HOW TO BE A SUCCESSFUL HOTELIER
English is an international language and a business language as well. Almost in all the hotels, English has been used as the only language of communication between guest and the hotel staff. If English is not your mother tongue and you like to improve your English then this post is for you to give you some guideline so that you can improve your level of English to be a perfect hotelier-in fact as a hotelier you have to give proper service to guest and for that you need to talk and in which language? English!

Here are some basic tips you should follow to improve your English to be a successful hotelier :
• Change your attitude first. English is not a language of aliens. People like you use it to share their thoughts. It is very easy to achieve big amount of proficiency if you have such passion. If you can do hard hotel job then you should build confidence that English is much easy to learn then doing any hotel job.
• First Listen then Reply. It is always advisable that if you are a hotelier then in times of making conversation with guests you should listen him first then answer. If you try to answer quickly or stop guest while talking and give your answer then you may do mistake and at the same time guest may feel insulted as he will guess you are not listening him properly. So, never try to be an Idiot. Be calm, quite, keep patience, try to understand what guest is talking about and then reply correctly.
• Use simple language. As an hotelier it is not expected that you are an English professor using boom busting words. Your duty is to share your thoughts not showing your English proficiency. On the other hand your guest may not understand English very well. So, the most simple words and expression you use to share your thoughts the better feedback you should get. While talking use common polite expressions, be friendly, give smile and follow proper gesture and posture.
• Be updated. English is a global language which is being updated every now and then. So be updated by reading newspaper, magazines, surfing internet, watching television etc. There are many norms and terms which are not used at present time which used to present long time ago. So, as a smart hotelier you should not use backdated words.
• Set vision. Level of English proficiency is a big criterion for your promotion in job field. If you become expert in your department then there is a high chance that top level authority would give you a promotion. The better position you hold the more you have to write, talk, read and listen and all are in English. So, from now set a vision in your mind that to be a good ranked hotelier you need to improve your English and it is from now. This site will be your perfect friend in your journey.
• Learn from Expert. From your colleagues there will be some person who may have better English proficiency. Try to follow them. First try to investigate how the talk, what language they use, how they handle guest, which words in which situation they use etc. By this way, you could improve your English a lot.
• Know Hotel English. What do I try to mean by hotel English? For better understanding, the words and expressions we have to use in hotel may be called as hotel English. There is some good range of vocabulary which is used in hotel industry. You should learn all those words first and use those. Such big list of Hotel English Vocabulary suitable in every department will be included in our ebook.
• Avoid Carelessness. Language is such a powerful thing by which you can make your guest happy and make double selling within a second and at the same time it is you, who by mistake, may use a wrong word in wrong situation which could make your guest upset and even things may become your nightmare if you have to lose your customer for that or even he complains against you. Especially we would like to suggest you to be more careful to talk to a lady guests. So, it will be better not to use such words, you are not comfortable with and avoid complex sentences and if by mistake you use such, right at that moment do apologize to your guest and try to make the situation comfortable.

DEALING WITH COSTUMER

Dealing with Customer Complaints
When a customer contacts your company to complain about a product or service received, it can be a blessing in disguise. For every person who complains, there can be hundreds who do not bother to complain but who also spread negative comments about your company.
In situations where customer complaints occur, the complaint must be dealt with immediately and the cause of the complaint rectified. Some companies are not concerned with quality and often ignore complaints or deal with them dishonestly. Seeking customer satisfaction benefits a company in the long run.
a. Dealing with complaints
When the customer pays for a product or service, it is assumed that the product will work correctly or that the service received is as promised. Ideally, the customer will be satisfied, and there will be no complaints.
If there is a problem and the customer complains about it, your company should quickly answer the complaint and solve the customer’s problem. This is often done through your company’s customer service activity. But also, you need to follow up and improve your business processes to rectify the problem.
 Solve the problem
You need to immediately answer the complaint and solve the problem. It may be to give money back, exchange a product or do some repair.
 Special bonus
To make sure the customer is completely satisfied, some companies will provide some special service or a reduced price on another product. This is done to assure the customer will come back for more business. Many retail stores have a generous return policy to satisfy dissatisfied customers.
 Dishonest customers
Unfortunately, there are dishonest customers who will make false claims to get some bonus. Some people will use a product or piece of clothing and then return it, saying they weren’t satisfied.
 Price in customer service
When a company sells a product or a provides a service, part of the pricing should include the cost of servicing a certain percentage of defective products or complaints.
 Rectify problem
The second thing a company should do upon receiving a complaint is to seek to rectify the problem.
Although a company hopes not to get complaints, they often can be blessing in disguise. Sometimes problems can be caught and fixed before they cause serious negative feedback or even legal problems.
It is in the company’s best interest to solve any problems and try to make sure that they don’t happen again. It is foolish for a company not to use customer complaints to initiate a corrective action.

b. Not dealing with complaints
Businesses that don’t bother about satisfying their customers usually get more customer complaints. Answering them can, of course, cost the company money. Some companies will try to mollify angry customers but many don’t even bother.
 Making money off complaints
One software company holds weekly staff meetings to build morale and allow for status reports from each department. One part of their meetings is the report on how many customer problems they rectified the past week. If the number increased, the group was given praise.
 Complaints that fall on deaf ears
Have you ever experienced poor service or purchased a defective product and complained about it, only to have your complaints fall on deaf ears? Many companies that have plenty of business feel they don’t need to bother with complainers.
These businesses become very independent, especially if they have a product or service in demand. Some continue to succeed, even though they ignore customer complaints, but many will pay the price of lost business and degraded reputation in the long run.
 Apology mollifies customer
A company that responds and apologizes mollifies the complaining customer. But some of these companies never rectify the problem, like the hotel in the above story. The act of responding to the customer and apologizing is good business. Not fixing the problem is risky, though, and may backfire on the company.
 Could be sued
The bug letter story originated some 30 years ago. In today’s litigation crazed society, the hotel would have been sued for millions. Perhaps that is not so bad, if it is a case of ignoring problems. But if it was an honest mistake, such litigation can be destructive to the business as well as to society. We all pay more for things, because businesses must insure themselves against nuisance lawsuits

Misunderstanding
Social conflicts often involve some misunderstanding. Parties in conflict communicate by what they say (or do not say) and how they behave toward each other. Even normal interaction may involve faulty communication, but conflict seems to worsen the problem. When two people are in conflict, they often make negative assumptions about “the other.” Consequently, a statement that might have seemed innocuous when two parties were friends might seem hostile or threatening when the same parties are in conflict.

Overbooking
Definition: The practice of many hotels of confirming more reservations than actual inventory will permit. Hotels use historic no-show information to determine what percentage they can overcommit rooms. This practice is intended to enable 100 percent occupancy for the hotel.
There are what should we do if we as guest a hotel :
– Ask for proof and detail of the booking
– Apologies for the mistake
– Explain what happened
– Find out how many people are in the party and what room they need
– Show sympathy and understanding of the guest complaint
– Allocate the cheapest available rooms- you are expecting a fax confirming booking for the superior rooms so you want keep them
 
REFERENCES

http://www.google.com

Strutt Peter. English for International Tourism. 2003. England : Longman.

Sari Asih dalam Luh baruku

IGD itu mengantarkanku pada sakitnya jarum yang menelisik ke uratku.
sejak malam tadi 00:02 waktu menelisik sendiri dalam letih
beribu sakit berjejalan masuk ragaku.
mencoba menikmati tiap rasa,
mencicipi tetes infus yang sadar tertancap di tanganku.
hari ini terasa lama mencekikku,
membiarkan bungkam dalam luhku.
kemarin janjiku tak lagi menikmati wangi suntikan infus
tapi,
Allah begitu bijaksana
membiarkanku sejenak merasakan sehat dalam sakitku.

SB 11, 03:35 10 Juni 2010
perawat itu datang, dan menanyakan keadaanku?
aku hanya terdiam sambil tersenyum kecut.
di lantai bawah, Icha dan putri mengukur tiap dengkur
yang kadang kabur dalam keluhku.
aku ingin menangis, betapa aku merepotkan kalian.
sepiring bubur mendarat paksa di lambungku,
suntikan itu lembut menjajah urat nadiku.
sejenak terpejam menggantikan
jatah tidur malam yang tergadaikan.

11:26 siang ini,
senyum memenuhi ruanganku
memastikan aku akan bangkit dari sakitku.
lenyap, setelah satpam bangsal menghampiri semua kawanku.
” maaf, jam besuk sudah habis silakan keluar !”
yah, begitu lantang dan tegas satpam mengatakannya.

aku menjadi papah diatas ranjang ini putih ini,
aku bukan apa – apa
aku bukan siapa – siapa dengan sakit ini.
senyum kawan2 yang tertinggal
dan segenggam doa arif mereka menghujaniku
meneduhkan ragaku.

22:13 10 Juni 2010
sepertinya Mba tak letih mengantarkanku ke toilet.
yah, aku seperti bayi lagi rasaya
ke toilet saja harus diantarkan, jalan saja harus di papah.
astagfirullah,.,,
lalu nikmat Tuhan yang mana yang akan aku ragukan?

02:30 11 Juni 2010
dingin sekujur tubuhku, tak terlintas di pikiranku aku akan bertahan.
kulihat mba mila sedang mencari lelap dalam tidurnya
yang aku yakin tak nyaman.
malam ini lama
lama

keluhnya meninggi,

selimut tak lagi menahan dinginku, berkali perawat datang
mengontrol kondisiku. alpa…
masih saja sekujur tubuhku dingin.
segelas teh manis mendarat lembut di lambungku.
sejenak bisa terpejam,
dan panas tinggi masih saja merindukan ragaku

09:30
Dokter Riki menghampiriku,
aku minta pulang karena aku tak betah lama di ruangan ini.
senyumnya mengembang,
“Baru ketemu semalem masa uda mau pulang”
yah, pada akhirnya aku tak jadi di EEG
karena aku tak mau

10:45
Dokter suherman kemballi memriksa kondisiku.
“kau boleh pulang tapi tetap kontrol”
senyumku mengembang tipis,

yah aku akan pulang jam 13:35
disana ada banyak hati yang mengkhawatirkanku
ibuku, keluargaku, kawanku dan dia yang selalu menumpahkan
semangat gilanya padaku.
disana, ada cinta yang mengharapkanku untuk bangkit
dan aku akan kembali
percayalah aku akan baik – baik saja
jangan hentikan cinta kalian
teruslah berikan energi itu,

karena aku sayang kalian…

Berubah atau mati tergilas?

kau tau, aku bukan pemilik keberanian sejati itu. aku bukan orang yang selalu benar dan orang yang selalu menang. tapi kau harus tau ! aku adalah orang yang selalu ingin belajar untuk benar dan orang yang selalu ingin menang, karena keyakinanku itulah kini aku bisa berdiri tegar disini. kau ingin tau siapa aku sebelum aku punya keberanian mencintai diriku sendiri? aku hanya gadis udik yang menjelajahi setiap sudut kepenatan yang mereka hadirkan dalam lembaranku. kau ingin tau juga pastinya dari mana aku lahir? yah disana sebuah desa yang masih bersih dari debu – debu globalisasi, desa yang masing menjunjung tinggi adat istiadat. yang masih meninggikan harta daripada ilmu, aku memang bukan siapa – siapa saat itu, dan aku tau benar. saat itu aku tak punya keberanian menunjukkan siapa aku? karena aku pikir aku tak punya apa2. bayangkan apa yang bisa dibanggakan gadis desa yang gaptek seperti aku? tak ada. limitnya fasilitas yang menghimpitku untuk maju, membuatku semakin berpikir keras. mereka bilang yang meninggikan derajat itu harta? hah? tapi tak seperti itu paradigma bapakku saat itu. bukankah lebih baik miskin harta? daripada miskin ilmu? kau tau effek apa yang ditimbulkan dari statment bapakku saat itu?
yah, mereka pikir harta adalah kebahagiaan. bulsit !!!
toh pada akhirnya harta itu akan habis, sedangkan ilmu akan permanen menjadi aset yang tak bisa dijual dan tak kan terbeli. dengan segala keterbatasan keluargaku, aku mencoba berpikir apakah aku akan bertahan dengan keadaan masyarakat yang masih mendewakan harta? atau aku mengamini statment bapak dan melanjutkan perjuanganku mencari ilmu. dan sepertinya aku memang harus berubah, jika tidak aku akan mati tergilas dalam paradigma yang aneh itu.
dan sekarang kau tau? aku berani mengatakan pada dunia ” aku mencintai diriku sendiri ” kata yang terbelenggu lama dalam sanubariku.
hari ini aku adalah diriku yang mempunyai banyak energi untuk berubah, dan untuk berkontribusi bagi semestaku,
percayalah kau bisa melakukan itu asalkan kau yakin bisa dan kau yakin pantas menjadi agent of Changes itu.

Media Pembelajaran

BAB I
PENDAHULUAN

a. Latar belakang
Dalam proses belajar mengajar, dua unsur yang amat penting adalah metode mengajar dan media pembelajaran. Dalam makalah ini akan membahas bagaimana perbedaan antara media pembelajaran, media pendidikan serta media massa dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris.
Dalam metodologi pengajaran ada dua aspek yang paling menonjol yakni metode mengajar dan medis pendidikan sebagai alat bantú mengajar. Sedangkan penilaian adalah untuk mengukur atau menentukan taraf tercapai tidaknya tujuan pengajaran. Kedudukan media pendidikan sebagi alat bantú mengajar ada dalam komponen metodologi, sebagai salah satu lingkungan belajar yang diatur oleh guru.
Di sini juga akan dibahas penggunaan media pembelajaran. Seperti yang kita ketahui media pembelajaran itu banyak macamnya. Untuk proses belajar mengajar yang baik kita harus menggunakan media pembelajaran yang tepat. Untuk lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat pada uraian dalam makalah ini.

b. Tujuan
1. Mengetahui Pengertian Media Pembelajaran
2. Mengetahui perbedaaan Media Pembelajaran dengan Media Pendidikan dan Media Massa
3. Mengetahui Manfaat media pembelajaran dalam pengajaran bahasa inggris

 
BAB II
PEMBAHASAN

A. Pengertian
Kata media berasal dari bahasa latin yaitu medius yang secara harfiah berarti “tengah”, “perantara”, atau “pengantar”. Dalam bahasa Arab, media adalah perantara () atau pengantar pesan dari pengirim kepada penerima pesan.
Menurut Gerlach dan Ely (1971), media apabila dipahami secara garis besar adalah manusia, materi atau kejadian yang membangun kondisi yang membuat siswa mampu memperoleh pengetahuan, keterampilan atau sikap. Sehingga guru, buku teks dan lingkungan sekolah marupakan media.
Fleming (1987: 234) menyatakan media berfungsi untuk mengatur hubungan yang efektif antara dua pihak yaitu siswa dan isi pelajaran.
Hainich dan kawan-kawan (1982) mengemukakan istilah media sebagai perantara yang mengantar informasi antara sumber dan penerima.
Kesimpulannya, media adalah segala sesuatu yang dapat digunakan untuk menyalurkan pesan dari pengirim ke penerima. Sehingga dapat merangsang pikiran, perasaan, perhatian dan minat siswa sedemikian rupa sehingga proses belajar terjadi.
• Media Pembelajaran
Media pembelajaran adalah media yang membawa pesan-pesan atau informasi yang bertujuan instruksional atau mengandung maksud-maksud pengajaran menurut Gagne dan Briggs (1975) media pembelajaran meliputi alat yang secara fisik digunakan untuk menyampaikan isi materi pengajaran yang terdiri dari buku, tape recorder, kaset, video camera, video recorder, film, slide (gambar), foto, gambar, grafik, televisi dan computer.
• Media Pendidikan
Adapun pengertian media pendidikan itu antara lain:
a. Media pendidikan memiliki pengertian fisik (hardware) atau perangkat keras, yaitu sesuatu benda yang dapat dilihat, didengar atau diraba dengan panea indera.
b. Media pendidikan memiliki pengertian nonfisik (software) atau perangkat lunak, yaitu kandungan pesan yang terdapat dalam perangkat keras yang merupakan isi yang ingin disampaikan kepada siswa.
c. Penekanan media pendidikan terdapat pada visual dan audio.
d. Media pendidikan memiliki pengertian alat bantu pada proses belajar baik di dalam maupun di luar kelas.
e. Media pendidikan dapat digunakan secara missal (radio, TV), kelompok besar dan kecil (film, slide, video, OHP), atau perorangan (modul, computer, radio, tape,/kaset, video recorder)
Jadi kesimpulannya, media pendidikan adalah perantara yang membawa informasi atau pesan-pesan sebagai sumber belajar, baik berupa software dan hardware. Contoh media pendidikan adalah gambar, foto, sketsa, diagram, bagan/chart, grafik, kartun, poster, radio dan lain-lain.
• Media Massa
Media massa berasal dari dua kata, yaitu media dan massa. Media adalah alat atau perantara, sedangkan massa adalah orang banyak dan masyarakat umum. Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa media massa adalah suatu perantara untuk menyampaikan pesan kepada masyarakat atau orang banyak. Pesannya itu mengandung informasi-informasi yang diperlukan masyarakat, baik mengenai politik, sosial, ekonomi, maupun budaya. Sehingga dengan adanya media massa masyarakat mendapat pengetahuan tentang negaranya. Contoh dari media massa adalah surat kabar dan Koran.

B. Manfaat Media Pembelajaran
Salah satu alasan penggunaan media pembelajaran adalah terkait dengan manfaat media pembelajaran bagi keberhasilan belajar mengajar di kelas. Salah satu aspek yang menentukan keberhasilan dalam belajar mengajar adalah pemilihan media pembelajaran yang tepat.
Menurut Hamalik (1986), media pembelajaran yang tepat dapat membangkitkan motivasi, keinginan minat, dan rangsangan kepada siswa. Sehingga dapat membantu pemahaman, menyajikan data dengan menarik dan terpercaya, memudahkan penafsiran data, memadatkan informasi.
Adapun mengapa media pembelajaran yang tepat dapat membawa keberhasilan belajar dan mengajar di kelas, menurut Levie dan Lentz (1982), itu karena media pembelajaran khususnya media visual memiliki empat fungsi yaitu:
• Fungsi atensi, yaitu dapat menarik dan mengarahkan perhatian siswa untuk berkonsentrasi kepada isi pelajaran yang berkaitan dengan makna visual yang ditampilkan atau menyertai teks materi dan pelajaran.
• Fungsi afektif, yaitu dapat menggugah emosi dan sikap siswa.
• Fungsi kognitif, yaitu memperlancar tujuan untuk memahami dan mengingat informasi/pesan yang terkandung dalam gambar.
• Fungsi compensations, yaitu dapat mengakomodasikan siswa yang lemah dan lambat menerima dan memahami isi pelajaran yang disajikan dengan teks atau secara verbal.

Alasan-alasan mengapa media pembelajaran dapat mempertinggi proses belajar siswa yaitu:
a. Alasan yang pertama yaitu berkenaan dengan menfaat media pengajaran itu sendiri, antara lain:
1. Pengajaran lebih menarik perhatian siswa, sehingga menumbuhkan motivasi belajar.
2. Bahan pengajaran lebih jelas maknanya, sehingga dapat menguasai tujuan pembelajaran dengan baik.
3. Metode pengajaran akan bervariasi
4. Siswa dapat lebih banyak melakukan aktivitas belajar, seperti mengamati, melakukan, mendemonstrasikan dan lain-lain.

b. Alasan kedua yaitu sesuai dengan taraf berpikir siswa. Dimulai dari taraf berfikir konkret menuju abstrak, dimulai dari yang sederhana menuju berfikir yang kompleks. Sebab dengan adanya media pengajaran hal-hal yang abstrak dapat dikonkretkan, dan hal-hal yang kompleks dapat disederhanakan. Itulah beberapa alasan mengapa media pembelajaran dapat mempertinggi keberhasilan dalam proses belajar mengajar.

C. Perbedaan Media dua dimensi dan tiga dimensi

1. Media Dua Dimensi
Media dua dimensi sering disebut media grafis. Media dua dimensi adalah media yang memiliki ukuran panjang dan lebar. Grafis sebagai media pengajaran dapat mengkombinasikan fakta-fakta, gagasan-gagasan secara jelas dan kuat melalui perpaduan antara ungkapan atau grafik. Kata-kata dan angka-angka dipergunakan sebagai judul dan penjelasan kepada grafik, bagan, diagram, poster, kartun dan komik. Sedangkan sketsa, lambing bahkan foto digunakan untuk mengartikan fakta, pengertian dan gagasan yang pada hakikatnya sebagai penyajian grafis. Contoh media dua dimensi C media grafis, yaitu:
a. Bagan
Yaitu kombinasi antara media grafis dan gambar foto yang dirancang untuk memvisualisasikan secara logis dan teratur mengenai fakta pokok atas gagasan. Fungsi bagan adalah untuk menunjukkan hubungan, perbandingan, jumlah relative, perkembangan, proses, klasifikasi dan organisasi.
b. Diagram
Yaitu suatu gambaran sederhana yang dirancang untuk memperlihatkan hubungan timbal-balik terutama dengan garis-garis.
c. Grafik
Yaitu penyajian data berangka. Grafik merupakan keterpaduan yang lebih menarik dengan sejumlah tabulasi data yang tersusun dengan baik. Tujuan dalam grafik adalah memperlihatkan perbandingan, informasi kualitatif dengan cepat serta sederhana. Beberapa macam grafik diantaranya yaitu grafik garis, batang, lingkaran, atau piring dan grafik.
d. Poster
Yaitu kombinasi visual dari rancangan yang kuat dengan makna dan pesan dengan maksud untuk menangkap perhatian orang yang lewat tetapi cukup lama menanamkan gagasan yang berarti dalam ingatannya. Poster berguna untuk motivasi, peringatan dan pengalaman yang kreatif.

e. Kartun
Yaitu penggambaran dalam bentuk lukisan atau karikatur tentang orang, gagasan, atau situasi yang didesain untuk mempengaruhi opini masyarakat.
f. Komik
Yaitu suatu bentuk kartun yang mengungkapkan karakter dan memerankan suatu cerita dalam urutan yang erat dihubungkan dengan gambar dan dirancang untuk memberi hiburan kepada para pembaca.

2. Media Tiga Dimensi
Yaitu media yang mempunyai panjang, lebar dan isi. Media tiga dimensi yang sering dipakai adalah model dan boneka. Model adalah tiruan 3 dimensional dari beberapa objek nyata yang terlalu besar, terlalu jauh, terlalu kecil, terlalu mahal, terlalu jarang, terlalu ruwet untuk dibawa ke kelas, dan dipelajari siswa dalam wujud aslinya.
1) Jenis model dan penggunaannya
a) Model padat (solid model), yaitu memperlihatkan bagian permukaan luar dari pada objek dan sering kali membuang bagian-bagian yang membingungkan gagasan-gagasan utamanya dari bentuk, warna dan susunannya. Contoh model padat yaitu boneka, bendera, bola, anatomi manusia. Guna model padat untuk membantu dan melayani para siswa sebagai informasi berbagai pengetahuan agar siswa lebih paham dalam pelajaran.
b) Model penanpang (cuteway model), yaitu memperlihatkan bagaimana sebuah objek itu tampak, apabila bagian permukaannya diangkat untuk mengetahui susunan bagian dalamnya. Model ini berguna untuk mata pelajaran biologi, karena berfungsi untuk mengganti objek sesungguhnya.
c) Model kerja (working model), yaitu tiruan dari objek yang memperlihatkan bagian luar dari objek asli. Gunanya untuk memperjelas dalam pemberian materi kepada siswa.
d) Mock-ups, yaitu penyederhanaan susunan bagian pokok dan suatu proses atau sistem yang lebih ruwet. Guru menggunakan mock-up untuk memperlihatkan bentuk berbagai objek nyata seperti kondensator-kondensator, lampu-lampu tabung,serta pengeras suara, lambing-lambang yang berbeda dengan apa yang tertera di dalam diagram.
e) Diorama, yaitu sebuah pemandangan 3 dimensi mini bertujuan menggambarkan pemandangan sebenarnya.
2) Jenis boneka dan penggunaannya
Contohnya boneka tangan, dan wayang yang dapat digunakan agar siswa menjadi lebih tertarik untuk belajar.

D. Berbagai bentuk media audio visual
Media audio visual terdiri dari dua kata yaitu audio dan visual. Audio artinya pendengaran atau dapat didengar, sedangkan visual yaitu yang Nampak oleh mata atau yang kelihatan. Jadi media audio visual adalah media yang dapat didengar dan dapat pula dilihat oleh panca indera kita. Contoh media audio visual yaitu televisi dan computer.
Kelebihan media Audio Visual, yaitu:
o Pada televisi; televisi bersifat langsung, dapat membawa dunia nyata ke rumah dan ke kelas-kelas, seperti orang, tempat-tempat, dan peristiwa-peristiwa, melalui penyiaran langsung/rekaman.
o Menghemat waktu guru dan siswa.
o Televisi bersifat langsung dan nyata, sehingga siswa dapat dengan jelas melihat program apa yang lagi ditayangkan dan dapat memaksimalkan fungsi inderanya yaitu mata dan telinga.
o Lebih menarik minat siswa
o Pelajaran lebih bervariasi dan berkesan
o Jangkauannya luas

Kelemahan media audio visual adalah:
o Keanekaragaman siaran di TV menyulitkan guru untuk memilih siaran mana yang baik dan sesuai dengan pelajaran.
o Alat dan dana yang tidak memungkinkan.
o Menyita waktu guru, karena harus menjelaskan lagi setiap peristiwa yang ada.
o Tidak setiap guru mampu menjelaskan peristiwa yang ada secara gambling.

E. Kriteria pemilihan media pelajaran
Faktor yang harus dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan media pendidikan adalah sebagai berikut
– Relevansi pengadaan media pendidikan edukatif
– Kelayakan pengadaan media pendidikan edukatif
– Kemudahan pengadaan media pendidikan edukatif
Harus disadari bahwa setiap media memiliki kelemahan dan kelebiha. Pengetahuan tentang keunggulan dan keterbatasan media menjadi penting bagi gurudapat memperkecil kelemahan atas media yang dipilih oleh guru sekaligus dapat langsung memilih berdasarkan kriteria yang dikehendaki.
Kriteria pemilihan media pembelajaran yaitu:
• Sesuai dengan tujuan yang ingin dicapai. Media dipilih berdasarkan tujuan instruksional yang telah ditetapkan baik dari segi kognitif, afektif, dan psikomotor.
• Keterpaduan (validitas).Media harus tepat untuk mendukung isi pelajaran yang sifatnya fakta, konsep, prinsip atau generalisasi.
• Media harus praktis, luwes dan bertahan. Jika tidak tersedia waktu, dana, atau sumber daya lainnya untuk memproduksi, tidak perlu dipaksakan. Media yang mahal dan memakan waktu yang lama bukanlah jaminan. Sebagai media yang terbaik. Sehingga guru dapat memilih media yang ada, mudah diperoleh dan mudah dibuat sendiri oleh guru. Media yang dipilih sebaiknya dapat digunakan dimanapun dan kapanpun dengan peralatan yang ada di lingkungan sekitarnya, dan mudah dibawa dan dipindahkan ke mana-mana.
• Media harus dapat digunakan guru dengan baik dan terampil. Apapun medianya, guru harus mampu menggunakan dalam proses pembelajaran. Komputer, proyektor transparansi (OHP), proyektor slide, dan film, dan peralatan canggih lainnya tidak akan berarti apa-apa jika guru belum dapat menggunakannya dalam proses belajar mengajar di kelas.
• Mutu teknis. Pengembangan visual baik gambar maupun fotograf harus memenuhi persyaratan teknis tertentu. Misalnya visual pada slide harus jelas dan informasi atau pesan yang ditonjolkan dan ingin disampaikan tidak boleh terganggu oleh elemen lain yang berupa latar belakang.
• Media yang digunakan harus sesuai dengan taraf berfikir siswa. Media yang digunakan harus dapat menunjang dan membantu pemahaman siswa terhadap pelajaran tersebut sehingga proses pembelajaran dapat berjalan dengan lancar dan sesuai dengan tujuan pembelajaran yang ingin dicapai.
Menurut Prof. Drs Hartono Kasmadi M.Sc bahwa dalam memilih media pendidikan perlu dipertimbangkan adanya 4 hal yaitu: produksi, peserta didik, isi, dan guru.
1) Pertimbangan produksi
– Availabilty
– Cost
– Physical condition
– Accessibility to student
– Emotional impact.
2) Pertimbangan peserta
– Students characeristics
– Students relevance
– Students involvement
3) Pertimbangan isi
– Curriculair – relevance
– Content-soundness
– Presentation
4) Pertimbangan guru
– Teacher-Utilization
– Teacher peace of mind

BAB III
PENUTUP

Media merupakan suatu perantara (alat) untuk mencapai tujuan pembelajaran. Penggunaan media yang tepat dapat menunjang keberhasilan dalam proses pembelajaran. Media dua dimensi dan tiga dimensi masing-masing berbeda dan mempunyai kelebihan dan kelemahan tersendiri. Media pembelajaran yang diuraikan diatas mampu diaplikasikan dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris. Hal ini akan lebih mempermudah bagi guru dan siswa dalam mencapai tujuan pembelajaran. Seperti yang kita ketahui media pembelajaran itu banyak macamnya. Untuk proses belajar mengajar yang baik kita harus menggunakan media pembelajaran yang tepat. Oleh karena itu guru harus dapat memilih media yang sesuai dengan bahan pembelajaran sehingga tujuan pembelajaran dapat dicapai dengan baik dan lancar.

 
DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Arsyad, Azhar. 2006. Media Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada.
Danim, Sudarbuan. 1995. Media Komunikasi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.
Sudjana, Nana dan Ahmad Rivai.2002. Media Pengajaran. Bandung: Sinar Baru Algensindo.
S. Sadiman, Arief, dkk. Media Pendidikan. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers
Harjanto. Perencanaan pengajaran. Rineka cipta